Thursday, October 31, 2019
Oasis or Blur Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words
Oasis or Blur - Essay Example Differing trajectories of Oasis and Blur In 1991, Oasis as and came to existence in the city of Manchester. The group was composed of Liam Gallagher, Paul Arthurs, McGuian, and McCarrol, to be joijned later by Noel Gallagher and was earlier known as ‘The rain’. Simplicity of music, crafted mainly by Gallagher brothers, was one of the hallmarks of the Oasis band. Also, the group started its triumph from nearly nothing. However, the group had faced several problems in the long run chiefly because of the in-fights and even accusations of plagiarism more than once which they had to pay damages. Especially, the tendency of Gallagher brothers to bring their petty sibling fights to the tabloid, compounded with the wild lifestyles has eventually led to the gradual erosion of the band’s popularity. Repeated live performances without substantial intervals have also taken the toll from the members of the band. The hedonistic lifestyle of the team members were major reason fo r the group’s downfalls. It is important to note that Oasis’s music style was heavily intertwined with that of The Beatles, up to the extent to be labelled as obsession by the media. Blur as an alternate music band was formed in London in 1989.
Monday, October 28, 2019
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions by Thomas A. Khun Essay Example for Free
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions by Thomas A. Khun Essay In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas A. Khun argues that scientific progress is not a matter of the slow, steady accumulation of knowledge over time but, rather, that it is characterized by long-standing beliefs about the world being radically overturned by the discovery of new information that fails to conform to existing frameworks. He also argues that the nature of the progress of science tends to be mischaracterized in textbooks and in educational practices, which typically cast the progress of science as a cumulative acquisition of knowledge where one breakthrough follows logically from the last.            In the essay, Khun uses the term â€Å"paradigm†to describe what science at large currently holds to be true about nature. The definition of a paradigm is a temporal one subject to change and any given paradigm only survives so long as it is useful to the working scientist.            â€Å"These [paradigms] I take to be universally recognized scientific achievements that for a time provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners†(p. ix), he states in the book’s foreword. This definition of a scientific paradigm is essential to Khun’s reasoning. Kuhn goes on to deconstruct the process by which revolutions take place, how they are generally brought to be accepted and how they influence the work and attitudes of the scientists that work within their parameters. For Kuhn, a revolution in paradigm equals a revolution in science.            The paradigm is central to the work of what Khun calls â€Å"normal science† which he defines as â€Å"†¦firmly based upon one or more past scientific achievements, achievements that some particular scientific community acknowledges for a time as supplying the foundation for its further practice. (p. 10)†This is the stuff of text books, the academy and what forms the majority of scientific research. Much of normal science concerns itself with fitting what information is gathered by practitioners into the predefined â€Å"box†provided by the current paradigm. Described by the author as â€Å"mopping up†operations, these endeavors occupy the working lives of most scientist. Practitioners of normal science are not concerned with the discovery of new information that fails to fit the existing paradigm (p. 24).            In the workplace, the word â€Å"paradigm†has taken on a much less structured definition than that used by Kuhn. A paradigm may well describe a current consensus of scientific thought and practice or it might describe a series of results expected of the practitioner by they who fund the experiments. It could describe a corporate paradigmâ€â€a word that corporations do not hesitate to use and stretch to the point of nonsense-that serves as a working model for how the business at hand ought to be carried out. The use of the word paradigm in the workplace differs significantly from Khun’s. Where Kuhn is careful to offer a clear, concise definition of the term, in the casual language of the workplace a â€Å"paradigm†can refer to almost anything that serves as a model from which something is expanded.            The story of the evolution of science is  a story of one paradigm being replaced by another. For a new paradigm to emerge, it must be so compelling and so better-suited to explaining the observed universe that it draws scientists away from the old paradigm which preceded it. It also must leave enough to be discovered that those who engage in research are compelled to embrace the new paradigm (p. 10). Once the new paradigm becomes the establishment view, the work of normal science becomes concerned with refining the empirical research that necessitated the creation of the new paradigm.            The work of gathering factual information about the universe and the influence of the current paradigm on that gathering is a defining characteristic of normal science. Kuhn breaks the process of fact gathering into three distinct categories: the gathering of facts that the paradigm shows to be particularly revealing; the gathering of facts that can be compared to the predictions of the theory; and, the gathering of facts which allow the resolution of ambiguities in the existing paradigm.            The first type of fact gathering often concerns itself with refining data to a greater degree of accuracy than was previously possible. The accuracy of the data scientists are able to gather using a refractor telescope  is far exceeded by the accuracy of the information they are able to gather with a radio telescope. The pursuit of such refinements takes up a great deal of the resources of normal science. It is precisely because the existing paradigm holds that the accuracy of data describing the position and movement of stellar objects is of the utmost importance that resources are committed to such pursuits. In the field of normal science, a practitioner may become regarded as particularly accomplished through these endeavors. As Kuhn puts it: From Tycho Brahe to E.O. Lawrence, some scientists have acquired great reputations, not from any novelty of their discoveries, but from the precision, reliability, and scope of the methods they developed for the redetermination of a previously known sort of fact . (p. 26) In this instance, normal science seeks not to innovate, but to refine the means by which the paradigm is validated.            It is also imperative for the paradigm to more accurately make useful predictions and a second focus of normal science concerns itself with this. To this end, specialized equipment is created that allows more precise measurements of natural phenomena which serves to bring data more in line with the predictions of the paradigm. In these cases, the paradigm not only dictates the question, but the methodology by which the answer is to be obtained. The existence of the paradigm sets the problem to be solved; often the paradigm theory is implicated directly in the design of the apparatus able to solve the problem (p. 27).            As Kuhn sees it, the machinery, method and the question itself all owe their design, and the nature of their application, to the paradigm they are intended to investigate.            Kuhn’s third class of fact-gathering endeavors concerns itself with further refining the paradigm itself. This is the most important class of fact-gathering in normal science (p. 27) and Kuhn divides it into subtypes, being those which seek to establish a mathematical constant, those which aim toward the creation of qualitative laws and those which aim to articulate a paradigm in ways that describe phenomena closely-related to those which the paradigm was originally designed to describe. He describes this third class of data-gathering activities as more closely resembling exploration than the others (p. 29).            Kuhn observes that normal science finds itself with a lot of mopping up to be done on behalf of the paradigm. Mopping up can be understood as the work necessary to make findings fit the paradigm. Mopping up can also be understood by what it does not endeavor to do. Normal science, in its mop up efforts, does not strive to find anomalies and novelties that do not fit within the relevant paradigm, nor does it tend to pay much attention to those anomalies it does discover. Normal scientists don’t concern themselves with inventing new paradigms nor are they particularly tolerant of those who do (p. 24).            While this could be interpreted as an excessively narrow, almost dogmatic, situation, Kuhn holds that such experimentation facilitates advancement within the paradigm and, thus, the advancement of science as a whole. Even though the work may be being done in the service of the paradigm more than in the interest of novel discovery, it still serves a useful purpose. As in many other instances in the book, Kuhn gives an historical example to shore up his argument. †¦ the men who designed the experiments that were to distinguish between the various theories of heating by compression were generally the same men who had made up the versions being compared. They were working both with fact and with theory , and their work produced not simply new information but a more precise paradigm, obtained by the elimination of ambiguities that the original from which they worked had retained(p. 34).            In this way, normal science working under a paradigm does increase the accuracy and understanding of the natural world, however inflexible the basis for that work may be. An element of normal science that Khun finds characteristic is that it contains an aspect of  â€Å"puzzle-solving†(p. 36).  Puzzles are a category of problems that require one to think creatively to find a solution. What makes puzzles particularly relevant is that there is only one correct answer to the puzzle. While a puzzle-solver may find a novel way to fit together the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle, it would be judged as wrong if that novelty did not result in the picture offered as the correct solution. Similarly, much of normal science concerns itself with finding answers which are known in advance of whatever effort is made to find them.            A practitioner of normal science seldom sets out to conduct an experiment for which he does not already suspect he has the result. The power of the paradigm is to make those predictions accurately and the lure of the puzzle is that it presents a problem where the skill of the scientist can be ascertained by their ability to find answers that may have eluded previous researchers (p. 38). There is a certain addictive property in this, to be sure, particularly to those with the sort of curiosity-driven personality that lends itself to the practice of science.             â€Å"There must also be rules that limit both the nature of acceptable solutions and the steps by which they are to be obtained†(p. 38) .  Again, the box with all its rigidity serves to paradoxically advance understanding the universe through its restrictions. There must be expectations for without expectations there is no way to define what is anomalous; no way to determine what is novel. Kuhn uses the example of a machine that measures wavelengths of light. The machine’s designer must demonstrate that they are, indeed, measuring the wavelengths of light as they are understood by current theory. Any unexplained anomalies that fail to fit with what is expected are likely to be seen as a flaw in the design of the experiment that renders its findings essentially useless (p. 39).            There is an obvious workplace connection to Kuhn’s description of how a paradigm functions to at once restrict and advance science. Were an anomaly to become commonplace enough that it merited investigation, then perhaps resources and time will be allocated to that pursuit. However, the tendency of normal science being to ignore or suppress anomalous findings, it is more likely that those anomalies will be disregarded altogether for cause of their adding nothing to the existing paradigm under which the scientists, and thus the workplace, operate. But, in cases where those anomalies cannot be ignored, where they are not truly anomalous but, rather, repeatedly-observed novel facts, the seeds for innovation are sewn.            A novel discovery can shatter a scientific paradigm and bring about changes that could have never been expected. â€Å"After they [novelties] have become parts of science, the enterprise, at least of those specialists in whose particular field the novelties lie, is never quite the same again†(p.52) .            For a discovery to be truly novel, it must satisfy two criteria: it must not be predicted by the current paradigm and it must be something for which the scientist was not prepared. When this situation occurs, the paradigm cannot simply be added to in order to explain the novelty. The scientist must â€Å"learn to see nature in a different way†(p. 53) before the fact becomes a scientific fact. Seeing nature in a different way, however, presents a crisis.            If the anomaly, upon investigation, becomes recurrent, a process starts where it becomes clear the that the paradigm must change. This cause a great deal of anxiety in the scientific community as a paradigm shift inevitably means that the techniques and foundations of science need rewritten. Kuhn remarks: â€Å"As one might expect, that insecurity is generated by the persistent failure of the puzzles of normal science to come out as they should. Failure of existing rules is the prelude to a search for new ones†(p. 68). This is an important observation for the practicing scientist. While it is easy enough to regard anomalies as a failure of equipment design or of the practitioner, keeping one’s mind open to the possibility that a novel, and potentially important, phenomena has been observed is imperative to the progress of science. Further study within the paradigm may serve to identify the anomalous as the norm and thereby advance the paradigm as a whole. The study of the anomalies within the paradigm is, perhaps ironically, the best way to advance the paradigm itself. â€Å"So long as the tools a paradigm supplies continue to prove capable of solving the problems it defines, science moves fastest and penetrates most deeply through confident employment of those tools†(p. 76).  Khun regards the crisis as an opportunity. â€Å"The significance of crises is the indication they provide that an occasion for retooling has arrived†(p. 76) . Now that the crisis is at hand, what remains to be seen is how the scientific community will act toward it.            It may seem that Kuhn is sometimes disparaging toward science for its rather strict adherence to its guiding paradigms. However, there are counterinstances to any paradigm that occur in most any research and, therefore, any research presents crisis (p. 81). Normal science does well to be pragmatic in the face of anomalous data, if only for the sake of saving time and money that can be directed toward more useful research. Scientists generally do not line up to renounce their existing paradigm in the face of anomalies.  Even persistent anomalies that cannot be explained by a mistake do not generally present a crisis (p. 81). Oftentimes, continued work within the existing paradigm will serve to resolve the anomalies. Sometimes these counterinstances are set aside to be resolved later if they prove not particularly disruptive.            The process of a paradigm being rewritten has its own historical pattern. â€Å"All crises begin with the blurring of a paradigm and the consequent loosening of the rules for normal research†(p. 84) . When this occurs, science returns to a state similar to that which existed before the creation of the paradigm now in question. There is ambiguity, the opportunity for innovation and creativity but within a small, clearly defined area. This situation, however, is where revolution is fermented.            The construction of the new paradigm is not a slow, cumulative process, it is a complete â€Å"reconstruction of the field from new fundamentals†(p. 85). There will be a period where both paradigms are used to solve problems but the difference between the means by which the problem is solved will be decidedly different in each model. The process of redefining the paradigm is part of extraordinary science. When scientists are confronted with crises, they react by embracing different attitudes toward the existing paradigm. The proliferation of competing articulations, the willingness to try anything, the expression of explicit discontent, the recourse to philosophy and to debate of fundamentals, all these are symptoms of a transition from normal to extraordinary research (p. 91).            After setting up the playing field, Kuhn begins to describe the actual process by which a revolution takes place. He references the nature of political revolution as a parallel. â€Å"Political revolutions are inaugurated by a growing sense, often restricted to a segment of the political community, that existing institutions have ceased adequately to meet the problems posed by an environment that they have in part created†(p. 92) . Possibly more than in any other part of the essay, Kuhn start to flex his intellectual power in this chapter. He uses as one example of the parallel the discovery of the X-ray. For most astronomers, x-rays presented no real problem and were easily enough assimilated into their existing paradigm. For a particular group of scientists, however, specifically those who worked with radiation theory or whose work involved the use of cathode ray tubes, x-rays violated the laws of the paradigm under which they worked.            Like a political revolution, the new paradigm seeks to replace the old in part because the old paradigm does not allow for the existence of the new. They are not compatible in the same way that ruler by a hereditary monarch was not compatible with the new paradigm of representative democracy that characterized the American revolution. For there to be a need for a new paradigm, the old must be logically incapable of providing an explanation for the anomaly, or anomalies, that served as the impetus for its being questioned.  It follows that the new paradigm must make predictions that are inherently different from those of its predecessor (p. 97). For the new to come into its own, parts of the old must be sacrificed (p. 93). As the crisis deepens, competing camps vie for relevance, each offering its own solution to the problem at hand. They each attract their adherence and the auspices of the old paradigm are no longer sufficient to unite the divided camps. As is the case with political revolutions, there is a freewheeling period where there is no clear authority.            The debate between the new paradigms is essential.           Each one lures adherents with its promises of usefulness and its vision of life under the new paradigm. Scientists do not leave their paradigms easily. In fact, rather than being left out in the cold, most scientists will not reject their existing paradigm until a viable alternative is offered (p. 77). Kuhn holds that the study of persuasive argument is as important as the study of logical and reasoned argument in periods during which practitioners are undertaking the process of finding a viable alternative to a no-longer adequate paradigm (p. 94).            Kuhn holds that scientific revolutions invariably resolve with the world view of the scientific community having been forever changed (p. 111). What was once familiar is now new, what was once established as accurate is now proven to be something less than that by the new paradigm. Paradoxically, the new perception depends upon the new paradigm just as the old mode of seeing the world depended upon adherence to the discarded paradigm. Without a point of reference, the world becomes incoherent. Where scientific revolutions are concerned, there may be a shift in paradigm but there is always a paradigm, whether it be contemporary or past its relevance. As Kuhn argues in previous chapters, it is from this structure that innovation flows and, therefore, the constant presence of a paradigm is not necessarily a failing on the part of science.            Though the world of science may have been turned on its ear, one is unlikely to ever get this impression from textbooks and courses. The paradigm, once established, becomes victim to what Khun calls the â€Å"invisibility†of scientific revolutions. This could be seen as a true weakness in the scientific community. Like those that ferment and enable political revolutions, scientists tend to rewrite history in such a way that omits the conflict, controversy and creativity that led to the revolution that gave birth to the current paradigm. †¦scientists are more affected by the temptation to rewrite history, partly because the results of scientific research show no obvious dependence upon the historical context of the inquiry, and partly because, expect during crisis and revolution, the scientist’s contemporary position seems so secure (p. 138).            Thus, this remarkable history of revolution in thought, in practice and in humankind’s knowledge of the universe is glossed over in textbooks. The revolutions that once turned the world on its ear, at least for scientists, become the realm of normal science and the practitioners go back to mopping up reality to make it conform to the predictions of the new paradigm just as they did in the service of the old. Kuhn makes his case mostly by citing textbooks as an example of how history is rewritten but, since text books are the tool of the trade where the teaching of science is concerned, the significance is obvious.            However, the way in which the paradigm is regarded has its advantages. †¦once the acceptance of a common paradigm has freed the scientific community from the need constantly [sic] re-examine its first principles, the members of that community can concentrate exclusively upon the subtlest and most esoteric of the phenomena that concern it. Inevitably, that does increase both the effectiveness and the efficiency with which the group as a while solves new problems (p. 164) . Here, again, is the theme of the â€Å"box†of the paradigm allowing scientists to explore beyond its limits. The efficiency with which scientists can work under a shared paradigm and the reliable set of tools with which it provides them are priceless. Perhaps, this is the reason the scientific community works so hard to preserve whatever paradigm is relevant at the time; it is not the fear of the new but the fear of the loss of what has proven itself valuable.            What is interesting about Kuhn’s essay is that he does not use the word â€Å"truth†-excepting in a quotation from Francis Baconâ€â€a fact that he point out himself (p. 170). Kuhn holds that there may not be a need for any such lofty goal. â€Å"Can we not account for both science’s existence and its success in term of evolution from the community’s state of knowledge at any given time?†(p. 171)            This is a powerful idea. Perhaps, a better understanding of the universe is not a goal but a thing better defined-and accomplished-if it is understood to be an ongoing process. Kuhn also provides a powerful question for those who would regard, or characterize, science as a form of dogma: â€Å"Does it really help to imagine that there is some one full, objective, true account of nature and that the proper measure of scientific achievement is the extent to which it brings us closer to that ultimate goal?†(p. 171)            A poignant question, indeed. Is there an endpoint to science? Is there a point where there will be nothing left to learn, nothing left to explore and when the collected work of science will entail all that there is to know about the universe? If history is any indication, such a situation is unlikely. The story of science, and Kuhn argues this convincingly, can be seen as a continuing process without any particular goal in site. There may be the subset of goals toward which the practitioner of normal science works, but these are simple goals relating to the desired outcome for one experiment or another, not goals set for science as a whole. That is to say, to work toward a better understanding of the orbit of Jupiter is not to work toward anything so esoteric as a better understanding of the universe, it is to simply add to the ongoing process of scientific revolution by examining one subset of data within a paradigm. The value of Kuhn’s essay extends beyond what value it may have to practitioners of science. It provides a framework that can help anyone, scientist or not, understand the means by which science determines what is an accurate description of the natural world. Science currently finds itself challenged on many fronts for many reasons, most of them having little to do with science and a great deal to do with politics and theology. Kuhn’s essay provides a potent reply to the casting of science as dogmatic or religious in nature.            Personally, I feel that this book is of the utmost value to anyone engaged in the practice of science at any level. What Kuhn manages to do in this essay is to communicate what amounts to an understanding of understanding itself. The scientific method has proven over and over again to be the most accurate means that humanity has devised to make sense of the universe. But science must strive to understand itself as much as it strives to understand the universe.            The only sure protection against dogmatism is the acknowledgement that all theories are temporal, subject to unexpected and radical change and that they function to explain nature as it is currently understood. There is an important distinction between our current understanding of the universe, our paradigm, and the reality of the universe. Our understanding is always limited to the cumulative experiences of scientists past and present, which, along with those significant moments of revolution have provided the best means available to make accurate and useful predictions. The nature of science, however, is one of constant evolution. As Kuhn argues, this evolution is not a process remarkable for its consistency so much as it is a process remarkable for being punctuated by research and discoveries that cause huge leaps forward in understanding. A scientist who does not understand this may well find themselves consigned to a life of puzzle-solving exercises designed to confirm what is already known rather than experiencing what I would submit is the true passion-inducing aspect of science, the discovery of novel facts that turn the world of science upside down and test the limits of the scientific community’s ability to assimilate and understand those discoveries. Probably the most radical contrast between science and dogma is that science, in its best practice, never shies away from examining itself, its conclusions and the accuracy of the beliefs it encourages. It may not submit itself easily to such tests but it will given time and the impetus of novelty. Kuhn’s essay provides a means by which one might acquire much insight into the workings of science and the scientific community and it provides a celebration of the many crises that have pushed science, and therefore humanity, forward in thought and understanding.            I find myself in agreement with Kuhn’s conclusions about the ways in which the scientific community reacts to and eventually assimilates novel discoveries. Science, indeed, has been forced to concede long-held beliefs about the universe in the presence of new evidence which did not fit with old paradigms. The case of the evolution of life, where scientists once worked mightily to ensure that there was some room for theology, is one such instance. In the face of Darwin’s observations, science was forced to accept a new paradigm where the nature of living organisms was changed not by providence but by the environments in which they lived. More importantly than Darwin’s impact on theological theories of evolution, or the lack thereof, however, was the concept that evolution was not a goal-driven process (p. 171). This conflicted not only with the theologians of Darwin’s time, but with the accepted scientific theories, the paradigm, of biology as well. No longer was the march of life seen as a march forward toward any particular destination. It had now been more accurately described as a process dictated by the situations of individual organisms rather than the result of some grand design. There was no particular better or worse aspect to the wildlife on the Galapagos evolving to fit the islands on which they lived, the modifications inherited by way of natural selection simply flowed from the natural environment and, given a different environment, they would change again.            From that new paradigm and from the practitioners of normal science who worked and continue to work within it came modern medicine, agricultural practices and many, many more achievements that are directly traceable to the current paradigm where life is believed to have evolved into its present state over billions of years of slow, cumulative changes. Without the flexibility to change the existing paradigm, we may have found ourselves unavailed of the knowledge of the double-helix, the methods by which bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics and the roots of genetic disease. As Kuhn points out, a radical paradigm shift such as that started by Darwin is necessary for a scientific revolution but the work of those practicing normal science, the geneticist working in the lab, the geologist using the paradigm that explains how a layer of rock strata may be assigned a probable age, the physicist whose work allows for technology such as carbon dating, are all as necessary for the acquisition of a better and more accurate understanding of the universe as is the revolution itself. And, further, that paradigm-driven research is the usual means by which revolutions in the scientific paradigm come to pass.            That puzzle-solving work of the normal scientist will always draw some to the practice of science. The allure of finding a solution, of one’s research becoming part of the evidence that defines the current scientific understanding of the universe is a powerful one and one that should be encouraged. Normal science may have its elements of drudgery and it could be characterized as only confirming what is already known but that would be inaccurate. Science forms theories based on facts. The power of science to constantly discover new facts about our universe has for a long time been a source of hope and inspiration to humanity as a whole. However, the work of better refining our understanding is of equal value. Science must keep an open mind while continuing to adhere to the paradigms that have provided the best answers. Kuhn’s observant, thoughtful and enlightening essay provides a means for practitioners to better understand the importance of both. References Kuhn, T. (1991). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 3rd Ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Saturday, October 26, 2019
Effect of Music on the Level of Happiness
Effect of Music on the Level of Happiness ABSTRACT The present study was designed to investigate the role of music in increasing the level of happiness of college students. The convenient sample comprised of 120 (sixty men and 60 women) undergraduate students from G.C University, Lahore. Their age range was 17 23 years (M = 20.38, SE =0.11). This study used a 2(Gender) X 3(Music) X 2(Phase X S) mixed factorial design, with gender and type of music as between-subject factors and phase as repeated measures factor. Type of music had three levels, viz., classical, popular and mystical and phase was divided into pre- and posttest measures. After taking informed consent, participants were randomly assigned to the three conditions. Each participant was assigned a computer and was provided with a set of headphones through which they heard the specific kind of music. The Depression Happiness Scale (Joseph and Louis, 1993) scale was administered once before and then after the participants listened to the music. The results of (2 X 3 X 2) mixe d factorial Analysis of Variance and post-hoc Tukey tests revealed that popular music had significantly increased the level of happiness of college students, unlike classical and mystical music. No gender differences were found. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This thesis examines the enhancing effects of music on happiness. Music is the purest form of art. It can be said that it has an impact on almost everyone. Certain pieces of music have a relaxing effect, while others stimulate us to act, and some cause change in or emphasize our mood. This work specifically investigates if listening to different kinds of music can increase the level of happiness or not. 1.1 Defining Music The word music basically comes from the Greek word mousike meaning art of the muses. Technically, all sounds are the result of atmospheric vibrations; however, unlike mere sounds and noises, music consists of a set of sounds with particular frequencies, amplitudes, and timbres which are organized into highly predictable patterns. The Social and Cultural meanings by people turn these sounds into music (Smith, 1989). Culture and social context is very important while defining some construct (Matsumoto Juang, 2008). Thus, the definition of music varies according to culture and social context. The artists may view music as a performing art, a fine art, and an auditory art. According to J. P. F. Richter, Music is the poetry of the air.William Shakespeare called music the food of love, (Galwitz, 2001). Humanistic psychologists view music as a means of self fulfillment, integration and self actualization. For existentialists it is another department of choice and freedom. Music in any form has a universal appeal, like an international language, it is understood and spoken everywhere, and its charm and penetrating power cannot be denied (Malik, 1983). Components of Music Music consists of particular frequencies, amplitudes, and timbres etc which are organized into patterns. (North, Hargreaves Hargreaves, 2004).The components of music are, Musical note is a single sound of definite pitch and duration which can be identified in writing. Rhythm, is the arrangement of sounds in time, this arrangement is a complex arrangement of notes into a mixture of short and long durations within a single bar or a series of bars. Regular pulse groupings are called bars or measures. Rhythm is one of the most central features of many styles of music, especially jazz and hip-hop (Lerdahl Jackendoff, 1983). A Scale is a progression of notes in an ascending or descending order. Melody or tune assembles a series of notes into recognizable musical shapes. The notes of a melody are created with respect to pitch systems such as scales. A melody usually though not necessarily possesses rhythm. The rhythm of a melody is often based on the tones of language, the physical rhythms of dance or just periodic beatings (Narveson, 1984). The beat of a piece of music is its regular pulse, determined by the bar lines by which music are metrically determined. Pitch, is the height or depth of a note in relation to other notes or in relation to an absolute pitch. The absolute pitch has internationally been set at A=400 Hz that is, the A above the middle c has a frequency of 440 cycles or vibrations per second. Pitch is determined by the sounds frequency of vibration. The process of assigning note names to pitches is called tuning. The difference in frequency between two pitches is called an interval. The interval indicates either the doubling or halving of the base frequency (Machlis Kristine, 2007). Harmony is the study of vertical sonorities in music. A vertical sonority refers to considering the relationship between pitches that are together. Harmony can also be implied by melodies that outline a harmonic structure. Larger structures involving multiple pitches are called a chord (Darmschroder Williams, 1990). Harmony in music can be analyzed through Roman numeral system. A system of chord symbols is used in popular and jazz music (Friberg, 1991). Musical texture is the overall sound of a piece of music .It is described as the number of parts or lines and their relationship. The perceived texture of a musical piece can be affected by the interval between each musical line, the timbre of instruments or the number of instruments used. Monophony, homophony and polyphone include musical textures. Monophony is the texture of a melody. The texture of homophony is achieved when a melody is accompanied by chords. The melody in homophony is usually voiced in high notes. Polyphony consists of several simultaneous melodies of equal importance (Temperly, 2001). Form, is a feature of musical theory that explores the concept of musical syntax, on a local and global level. The syntax is often explained in terms of phrases and periods or sections or genre respectively (Juslin Laukka, 2004). 1.1.2 Types of Music Different types of music help in soothing ones disturbed soul and cheer us up. There are various types of music i.e., classical music, rock, hip-hop, folk, opera, mystical etc. Classical music is a complex form of music as it requires high musical skills like learning the ragas and ability to coordinate with other musicians .The one who wants to learn, he/she has to go through proper training in this field of music (Bhattacharyya, 2008). Classical music is different from other types due to its instruments and form. Classical music can be described as of having two kinds, western classical music and eastern classical music. The central norms of western classical music were codified from 1750 to 1820, which is known as the classical period. The major instruments used in western classical music include, the piano, harpsichord, the organ and bagpipes. Western Classical music is also capable of taking on different forms such as, concerto, symphony, sonata, opera, dance music, suite, etude, symphonic poem etc. The composing of classical music aims to instill the music with a complex relationship between the emotional and the intellectual aspects. Classical musicians get extensive training and schooling to attain technical mastery before performing classical music. They understand the principles, and gain the knowledge that is essential for the performance of classical music (Grout et al, 1996). The origin of eastern classical Music was from, the Hindu traditions. The oldest of the scriptures and the Vedas describe music at length. The major instruments used include, the tabla, sitar, sarood, pakhawaj, tanpura, tambura, swarmandal, bansuri and sarangi. The eastern classical music is basically monophonic, and is arranged around a single melody line. The composition based on a particular raga, begins with the performers coming out in a ritualized order, first the drone instruments, then the soloist, then accompanists and percussionists. The musicians first tune their instrument. The tambura is played at a steady tone throughout the raga, by a student of the soloist. The raga begins with the melody being developed gradually. The beginning of the raga is called an alap. Once the raga is established, the ornamentation begins to become rhythmical, which gradually speeds up. This section is the jor. After the jor reaches its climax, everything stops and then finally the percussioni st begins to play while interacting with the soloist. Beginning from India, the classical music tradition has extended towards Pakistan and also Afghanistan. The major vocal forms of eastern classical music include, Dhurpad, which is a style of singing, is accompanied by tempura and pakhawaj. The lyrics are heroic in theme, or otherwise in a praising tone. The, Ghazal originally being Persian in form, exists in multiple variations. The Khayal is an informal form of vocal music. It is partially Improvised and emotional in nature. The Tarana, are songs that are used to convey a mood of elation. They have a few lyrics and are mostly composed of rhythmic sounds. Thumri is an accessible and informal vocal form. The lyrics are typically in a language called braj bhasha, and are usually romantic. The system of notation called sargam holds a very important place in classical music of the east. For eastern classical music, the expertise of voice, rather than the instruments is emphasized (Patnaik, 2006). Popular Music is music belonging to any number of musical styles that are widely popular. It covers mainstream music that does not falls into any specialized style such as jazz or hip hop. Popular music essentially includes the use of instruments such as guitar, violin, fiddle, piano, bass and drums. In these types of music, the bass guitar is an important instrument. This can be used in different intensities to emote feelings of anger, pride and others. As compared to classical music, popular music does not require expertise. Many people play popular music together with their friends, on a casual amateur basis. The roots of the music are found in African American and West African music (Moore, 2004). Mystical music is an outburst of the soul. It comprises of spacious, contemplative, heartfelt, trance inducing and psychedelic sounds. It is a mix of entrancing drones, structures, and rhythms. Mystic music is different from classical music in terms of its lyrical content. The sole theme of Mystical music is of building a connection with God. The singer addresses God as his beloved and tries to gain his acceptance Mystical music makes one explore a kind of rich sound experience that lifts and awakens one above normal consciousness. It is relaxing. Mystic music fulfills the purpose of music which is to help us contact the spiritual dimensions of life and reveal the secret to us and to, keep the spirit alive (Nasr, 1997). An important feature of Pakistani mystical music is the interchanging of gender of the singer. 1.1.3 Effects of Music Music holds a very significant position in our lives since the beginning. From the early beginning to the present day, interest in music with reference to healing and therapeutic experience has sustained (Bartlett, 1996). Researchers have found that about two-thirds of the inner ears cilia resonate only at the higher frequencies that are commonly found in music (3,000 20,000 Hz). This seems to indicate that primitive humans communicated primarily through song or tone. There are references to the divine alliance of music and medicine in classical antiquity and the healing function among primitive people (Schullian Schoen, 1948). Recent work on music has confirmed the effectiveness of music too. Music has been found to be capable of triggering Endorphins in the human body, which help the mind in creating sound images, thus making it possible for people to escape into painless worlds sheltered by their imaginations. Music can regularize or disturb the heart beat or relax or tense the nerves; it is also able to affect digestion, respiration and blood pressure (Tame, 1984). Ansdell (1995) suggested that music could act as a powerful tool with neuro-disability. In many instances it has been found that people with brain related problems were able to function in better ways while being exposed to music (Bunt Hoskyns, 2002). Mc Carty (1999) described how music could reduce negative emotions and increase positive emotions in healthy as well as clinically ill Music can decrease pain and depression while increasing mood and self esteem. A study indicated that tempo affected arousal, while mode of the music affected the mood (Husain, Thompson Schelenburg, 2002). Wellness is a product of healthy body, mind, spirit interactions, and, as a result music can be an important asset in creating the appropriate environment for persons healing (Stewart, 1990). Musics appeal to us is primarily emotional and psychological. Music has been noted for its ability to enhance peoples moods, move them to tears, make them want to rejoice or just move them emotionally in both negative and positive ways (Goldstein, 1980). Radocy and Boyle (1979) suggested eight kinds of affective responses to music. Some are related to an innate sensory perception of the sound whereas; others are related to images, experiences and emotional context of the experiences. These responses may include simple, negative and positive feelings, and moral or religious temperaments. Thus, music is often capable of helping people in dealing with the issues which they have not dealt with earlier in their lives. (Bright, 1993; Levine, 1999; Ortiz, 1997). According to Stewart (1990) music can act as an affective therapeutic agent under the right circumstances. Music can be helpful to us in initiating psychological movement by altering our mental states and leading us towards more positive affirmations (Blaking, 1990). Menuhin (1972) revealed further that music can bring order out of chaos, because rhythm makes the divergent unanimous, melody turns the disjointed into continuous, and harmony is capable of imposing compatibility among the incongruous. Sloboda (1989), states that, most of us take part in musical activities because it can arouse deep and significant emotions in us. The music itself cannot have extra musical meaning unless the experience to which it refers already exists in the mind of the listener. When music is similar to the connections with human life, then people experience intense emotions. Particular kinds of music are capable of moving painful memories or the unresolved problem in life. Storr (1990) believes that apart from the relations between seeing an emotional arousal, the relation between hearing and emotional arousal is stronger. Campbell Angus (1976), in a study observed that when people communicate with the emotional centers of our being through the use of music; we become better able to reduce stress and achieve a sense of well-being. Diamond (1979) suggests that music can be used as an important part of primary preventative health care at a psychosocial level. It has been reported that music is an activity which the healthy, impaired, talented and interested enjoy, because it provides them with a relief from their stress, anxiety (Blacking, 1995). Music if combined with personal attention and, can provide satisfaction and restore a sense of value to people who may be feeling depressed or low in self-esteem (Crystal, Grober Masur, 1989). In view of Hallan Price (1998), calming music led to better participant performance on arithmetic and memory tasks. Music can line up patterns of emotions, structures of consciousness and / or psychic energy (Stewart, 1990). Thus, music has great influences on a listener. It can take the mind and body to do spontaneous things. Depending on the type of music and the inner message it has, music can influence a person and his/her actions (Cassidy Byo, 2008). Happiness In this older sense, Happiness was used to translate the Greek Eudemonia. There has been a surge of interest in Positive Psychology during the last quarter of this century. There has been a huge amount of interest and research on happiness, well-being and satisfaction among all positive fields (Diener Diener, 1995). The term happiness is synonymous to subjective well- being (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Happiness can be defined as a feeling about yourself and the outside world. It is born from the internal workings of our own minds (Diener et all, 1997). Yew-Kwan Ng and Siang Ng (2000), define happiness as a complete state of mental health. They have defined emotional happiness as the presence of positive affect and life satisfaction with the absence of negative affect. It is a positive emotional state that is defined by every person on a subjective level. Diener, Scolon Lueas (2003) define Happiness as an overall appraisal of life, where the good and the bad are balanced. According to one of the founders of positive psychology, Seligman (2002), happiness consists of positive emotions and positive activities, emotions can be categorized as they are related to the past, present and future. Positive emotions concerning the past include satisfaction, contentment, pride and serenity whereas, positive emotions that are associated with the future include optimism, hope and trust. Veenhoven (1997) has defined happiness or subjective well-being as the degree to which one judges the quality of his life favorably. According to Schwartz Strack (1999), even very minor incidents in life can affect the level of happiness; however, Kahneman Schkade (1998), state that external circumstances are have little effect on happiness or subjective well- being. Theories of happiness The basic theories of happiness have been divided into two types, Top down theory Bottom up theory Bottom-Up Theory: Happiness and satisfaction depend on the sum of many smaller pleasures and happy moments (Diener Scwartz, 1984). In the perspective, of the bottom-up theory, well- being or happiness is a summing up of the positive experiences in a persons life. The assessment of satisfaction is considered in a small number of lifes domains. According to this theory, people self-rate their subjective well being with the help of a variety of external circumstances. The frequency of the pleasant moments makes a person happier. These circumstances may include the level of ones marriage, income work and family etc (Linley, Joseph Seligman, 2004). In this view, the objective life experiences, postulate the overall happiness. Top-Down Theory: The other perspective assumes that happiness is more related to general tendency to assess and infer to experiences in a positive way. From this point of view, a person brings tendencies of positivity towards the situations that he encounters. This view to subjective well being is known as top-down theory. This approach is mostly considered by observing personality traits or attitudes (Linley, Joseph Seligman, 2004). This theory states that people, who are over all satisfied with life, are satisfied with everything. People possess a disposition to judge lifes experiences in negative of positive ways. There are also other models of happiness which include, Need/goal satisfaction model, Process/activity model, Genetic/personality predisposition models. Psychoanalytic and humanistic theorists believe that reduction in tension and satisfaction of needs lead to the achievement of happiness. It was theorized that people were happy as they had achieved their goals (Compton, 2005). Emmons Diener (1986) has also emphasized how pursuing goals generates happiness. According to the process/activity theorists, participating in activities generates happiness. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) proposed that people who indulge in interesting and challenging activities, and experience the feelings of flow, as a result, are happier. The genetic/personality theorists view happiness as a stable construct. A Research by Costa and McCrae (1986) suggested that happiness is based on personality and genetics. Similarly, Lucas (1996) also found in a research that personality traits were closely related to happiness. Most of recent researches agree with idea of happiness being a combination of psychological, emotional, and physical well-being. Correlates of Happiness Individual differences in the levels of happiness have their significance, but studies have shown that predictors of happiness can be indicated and generalized. Evidence has been found that environmental factors and happiness can be correlated. However, it was also found that demographic variables, together account for less than 20% variance in happiness or subjective well- being (Campbell et al., 1976). A study by (Suhail Chaudary, 2003) found that work satisfaction, social support, religious affiliation, social class, income level, and marital status and marital satisfaction can be the predictors of happiness. Marital status and satisfaction: It has been found that marriage and happiness correlate significantly. Diener, Suh, Lucas, Smith (1999), found that unmarried people who cohabit with their partners are significantly happier in a few cultures. Research has shown that married people are happier as compared to unmarried, divorced, separated or widowed people. Shields Wooden (2003) found that married women and men were consistently happier than unmarried men and women. Finances: Financial status is related to happiness; however with an increase the effect diminishes (Diener, Diener Carol, 1995). Veenhoven (1994), stated that People of third world countries relate their happiness more to wealth. Evidence shows that relationship between happiness and wealth depends on the value that one associates with money (Burroughs, James Rindflisch, 2002). 3) Health: Physical health is strongly related to levels of happiness. If one is physically healthy he/she would have higher levels of happiness as compared to a person who is sick. Ryan Deci (2001) found that perceptions of health have more effect on happiness than objective health. If one is healthy (physically), then one experiences a feeling of well- being (Feist, Bodner, Jacobs, Miles Tan, 1995). According to physicians, Brief, Butcher, George Link (1993) a strong correlation exists between happiness and health. 4) Gender: women have been generally found to report higher levels of subjective well- being or happiness. Fujita, Diener Sandvick (1991) reported that women showed greater capacity for joy. Similarly, in a study by Wood, Rhodes Whelan (1989), it was found that women report slightly higher levels of happiness. However, Shayam and Yadev (2006) found that elderly men scored higher on well-being as compared to elderly women. In a study by Pennebaker, Rime Blankenship (1996), women expressed more intense emotions then men. Women also rated themselves as more verbally expressive than men. 5) Education: education does affect the happiness of people positively. Layard (2005), found that education is capable of increasing happiness indirectly, as it effects the ability to earn. Education has greater affect on the happiness levels of people with lower incomes (Campbell et al, 1976).Education appears to have only small direct influence on happiness. Life Events: Peak experiences have been found to be due to religion music or other intense activities. Diener Lucas (1999), state that subjective well-being correlates with friendship activities, having frequency of occurrence. The number of positive events correlates with positive affect (Schimmack, Diener Oishi 2002). Heady Wearing (1989) found that areas of friendship and work, increase happiness. 7) Culture: Diener Suh (1999) found that some nations appear to be more emotional than other nations. It was also found that happiness varies with interpersonal trust of people (Diener Suh, 2000). It was found that people in individualistic cultures had higher subjective well-being as compared to collectivistic cultures (Ball, 2001). 8) Religion: Many researches support that people who are religious tend to be happier. Studies have found that engagement in religious activities is significantly related to higher well-being (Donahue Benson, 1995). Peacock and Poloma (1999) found that ones perceived closeness to God was a very strong predictor of happiness. 1.3 Literature Review Immense research has been done to investigate the effects of music on physical as well as mental health. Researches have found that music has made positive influences on the physiological, psychological and the social domains. In a study, Fratianne, Prensner, Huston, Super, Yowler Standley (2001), conducted a study on patients at a burn care centre and found that the group which received the music therapy intervention, reported significant reduction in pain, compared to the groups having no music therapy. This conformed that music therapy is a valuable non-invasive intervention for the treatment of pain after burn injury. Nering (2002), in an experimental study investigated the effect of piano and music instruction on intelligence of monozygotic twins. Post-tests on the Wechsler standardized intelligence tests indicated that, that music instruction through individual piano lessons increased intelligence. Weinberger Norman (1998) conducted research to investigate if music is capable of improving brain development. They found that music not only improves our brain development, it even enhances skills like reading and mathematics. Music promotes social development, self -worth, personality adjustment, and also enhances creativity. It was also found that music making provides the most all-embracing exercise for brain cells and the synaptic interconnections. A study on the effect of music therapy in treatment of social isolation in visually impaired children was conducted. It discussed how that music therapy can be helpful in making the child explore his environment, and modify stereotypic, autistic-like behaviours, and encourage social awareness and interaction with other children. The results indicated that Music evokes profound responses without the help of words and therefore, can reach children with the severest disabilities (Gourgey, 1998). In another experimental study on the effect of music, Hallman, Price, and Katsarou (2002), found that calming music led to better participant performance on an arithmetic task and a memory task than no music. It was also found that background music on cognitive test performance led to improved performance when compared with a control condition (Cockerton, Tracey, Moore, Simon, Norman Dale, 1997). A study by Rideout Taylor (1997), involved 16 female and 16 male undergraduates, who completed two equivalent spatial tests, Results indicated that exposure to classical music, given to undergraduate students caused a small but significant improvement in spatial tests. In a study entitled, Music therapy for adolescents, Tervo (2001), suggested that music makes adolescents become expressive, be in contact with and share among themselves feelings of anger, rage, grief, longing and psychological disintegration. It provides opportunities to feel closeness or isolation and to explore sexual fantasies and feelings. Standley Hughes (1997) evaluated the effects of music sessions which were designed to enhance pre-reading and writing skills of 24 children (aged 4-5 yrs). The children were enrolled in Early Intervention and Exceptional Student Education (ESE) programs. The music treatment was provided along with the regular prekindergarten course. Pre and post-tests revealed that music significantly improved print concepts and prewriting skills of the children. A study by Chalmers, Olson Zurkowski (1999) examined the effect of music on lunchroom noise level and on the behaviours of children requiring intervention. The playing of classical music indicated that the noise level dropped to an average of six decibels, whereas, upon playing popular music the noise level decreased by ten decibels. In both conditions, music was capable of decreasing behavioral interventions. Covington (2001) stated that, many patients with psychiatric disorders struggle with poor skills in coping, socialization, communication, and self-expression which leads to dysfunctional cognitive, behavioral, and emotional responses. It was found that therapeutic music offers a noninvasive approach which helps in strengthening the skills and effect behavior change. Ming (2002) explored the Anxiety, Depression and self- esteem of undergraduates. The study examined the effects of music therapy on anxiety, depression and self-esteem of undergraduates. Twenty-four undergraduates showing greater anxiety and depression with lower self-esteem were assigned to experimental and control groups. The experimental group was provided twenty hours of music therapy, unlike the control group which did not receive any treatment. Quantitative and qualitative analyses indicated that the experimental group showed a reduction in anxiety immediately after the music therapy, the group expressed that they experienced more positive changes, including more pleasure, relaxation, and confidence, and less negative emotions. Chlan Linda (1998) investigated the effectiveness of a music therapy intervention on relaxation and anxiety for patients receiving ventilatory assistance. They used mystical music as music therapy. Mystical music therapy was found to be effective in decreasing anxiety and promoting relaxation. Decrease in heart and respiratory rate was also found. In another research, Smith and Noon (1998) investigated mood change induced by contemporary music. When analysis was done, it was found that all the pieces of music produced an overall change in mood. Popular/independent music produced highly significant changes. Ostertag (2002), in his article on music therapy with abused children stated that music therapy can play a very important part in the change process of abused children, specially while addressing emotional and relationship issues which are difficult to address using the cognitive or behavioural treatment models. Hendricks (2001), in his study on the use of music therapy techniques in a group for the treatment of adolescent depression, stated that one in five adolescents is effected by depression, which results in substance abuse, anorexia nervosa, poor academic performance and adolescent pregnancy. He investigated the use of music in a school setting for the treatment of adolescent depression. The pre and post test scores showed that the use of music therapy techniques positively correlated with reduced depression increased self-concept in the participants. In a study, Labbà ©, Schmidt, Babin Pharr (2007), conducted a study using a sample of 15 males and 41 female college students. They were exposed to classical and relaxing music after experiencing a stressful test. It was found that listening to classical and relaxing music after exposure to a stressor resulted in significant reductions in anxiety, anger, and sympathetic nervous system arousal, and increase in relaxation when compared to listening to heavy metal music or sitting in silence. In a study titled, An experience sampling study of emotional reactions to music: Listener, music, and situation, Juslin, Liljestrà ¶m, Và ¤stfjà ¤ll, Barradas, Silva (2008), investigated the prevalence of different musical emotions and how such emotions are related to various factors in th
Thursday, October 24, 2019
A Story in Technicolor :: Short Story Creative Writing
A Story in Technicolor Standing waist-deep in saw grass, a flawless graysky framing an unrealscene where river and reeds become indistinguishable,Karen gazed unimpressed. The sublime natureof this ecological experience bordering so unbelievably close to herown urban existence did not seep into her mind or psyche. Perhaps the seven applications of gel she had put on her hair that morning in order to prevent as much frizziness as possible was impeding the correct reaction, but that's not likely. Much more probable is the inference that Karen was not an outdoors type of person, in fact, only the most serenely beautiful sunsets ever tempted her to hike outside, and the Everglades with its apparently monotonous landscape was not making even a dent of an impression. Not to mention that it was raining, ruthlessly pouring down on her and the rest of her class, making her gel effort of the morning practically useless. She wasn't even really standing in the saw grass; it felt more like she was imperceptibly sinking into the mucky bottom. Sure, she might imagine that she could move around on the spongy surface but, in truth, she knew that if she remained immobile for more than a minute, the earth would commence to slowly swallow her, drowning her inch by inch. She moved around uncomfortably. Always acutely aware of her lack of balance, ever since a ballet teacher had pointed it out to her, Karen now felt as if her woman-child inadequacies were on full display. Her eyes darted sloppily around to see if anyone noticed her ineptitude in the new terrain and quickly looked down as she realized they were all too enthralled in their own conversations and eloquated experiences of nature to pay any mind to her. "Isn't this great?", she heard one girl say. "I can't believe all of this is so close to where I live and I'd never been here before. There really should be more educational awareness programs. I wonder why I was never taken on a field trip to the Everglades? Wouldn't it be challenging if our school became involved with primary schools to†¦", whether this curly-haired speaker went on a diatribe in response to the first girl's remark or simply for the sake of talking was beyond Karen. She lost interest rather quickly in their conversation and rather unstealthfully moved away from them, refusing to hear the rest of the genuinely exciting questions and remarks.
Wednesday, October 23, 2019
Catholic Social Teaching Essay
* is a body of doctrine developed by the Catholic Church on matters of poverty and wealth, economics, social organization and the role of the state. Its foundations are widely considered to have been laid by Pope Leo XIII’s 1891 encyclical letter Rerum Novarum, which advocated economic Distributism and condemned both Capitalism and Socialism, although its roots can be traced to the writings of Catholic thinkers such as St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Augustine of Hippo, and is also derived from concepts present in the Bible. * The Catholic Social Teaching has two basic characteristics, namely, being permanent and developing. * Permanent -Since the teachings are based on the Gospel, they offer a permanent complex idea to be pursued in the ever changing historical conditions and ways. These teachings can never go out of date in their fundamentals. Examples of these permanent teachings are exemplified in the following principles: 1. Human dignity and Solidarity 2. Social justice and Christian love 3. Active non-violence and peace 4. Preferential option for the poor 5. Value of human work 6. Universal destinations of all goods of the earth 7. Stewardship and the integrity of creation 8. People empowerment 9. Authentic and holistic (integral) human development * Developing -The fundamentals of Church Social Teaching make up the steadily growing collection of the Church’s social principles that must be creatively applied to and renewed in ever changing concrete situations of various events, cultures, and human needs in the historical process. Deeper insights into permanent values develop as the Church reads the signs of the times. * Methods and Sources 1. Scripture. The authoritative books which record the Jewish and Christian  experiences of God’s self-disclosure. Scripture reveals who God is and who we are called to be in response to God. Interpretation of Scripture requires attention to historical context and is best done in community. 2. Tradition: the ways of thinking and living that are â€Å"handed over†(traditio) from one generation to the next; an ongoing conversation across the ages about our most important questions. Also the body of theological reflection and the ways of putting this reflection into practice that are â€Å"handed over†(traditio) from one generation to the next. Magisterium: official teaching office of church and authoritative voice of tradition. While theologians, activists, and ordinary Catholics make contribute to this body of theological reflection in important ways, a privileged source of Catholic tradition is the magisterium or the official, authoritative teaching office of the church. This official teaching office is exercised by Catholic Bishops, and in particular the Bishop of Rome (the Pope), as well as groups appointed by the Pope. This teaching is expressed in the form of a) papal encyclicals; b) encyclicals of Church Councils (such as Vatican II) or Synods of Bishops, c) statements by Vatican offices, congregations, and commissions; & d) Episcopal conferences (regional meetings of Bishops, such as the National Conference of Catholic Bishops in the United States). 3. Reason. The natural human capacity to know truth. The way we interpret and understand Scripture, Tradition, and experience. * Reason as Natural Law The preeminent form of reasoning for much of Catholic tradition has been natural law reasoning. To understand Catholic natural law reasoning, one must get inside a whole worldview, culture, and language within Catholic tradition. Natural law holds that God’s intentions are expressed in the order that God â€Å"built into creation.†This order takes the form of â€Å"natures†or intelligible patterns of being. Humans are capable of knowing this order by reflecting upon creation. As humans we must first recognize our nature and act according to it so as to fulfill our created nature. For example, humans by nature (or by creation) have a â€Å"built in†instinct for self-preservation. Aquinas argues that to use appropriately limited violence in self-defense is good because it is to act according to our God-given nature. (God’s creation is good). * Four Levels of Law St. Thomas Aquinas defines law is â€Å"an ordering of reason†(ordinatio rationis) or the most important way that reason rules or measures actions. He describes four levels of law: a. Eternal Law: the mind (ratio) of God which orders and governs creation b. Divine Law: the explicit revelation of the mind of God in Scripture c. Natural Law: the expression of the mind of God in the order that God has built into creation. This order takes the form of natures or patterns of being that humans can know by using their reason to reflect on creation. For example, because humans by nature (or creation) have a built in instinct for self-preservation, limited self-defense is in accord with our God-given nature. See Romans 2:14-15 d. Human Law: human attempts to formulate laws that reflect the natural law. * Two Interpretations of Human Nature There have been two major strains of interpretation of human nature: a) â€Å"nature as physical†â€â€humans must respect their biological â€Å"givenness†or the physical order (ex. artificial contraception interferes with the natural order of sexual intercourse whereas the rhythm method respects this order.) b) â€Å"nature as rational†â€â€humans must act in accord with reason; they must seek to discover and fulfill their fullest purpose. Biology does not trump other cues in discovering â€Å"nature.†Instead, we must look to all sources of human wisdom in order to discover how things are meant to be. The pope reasons that the purpose of property is for the good of all creation but a limited right to private property is consistent with human dignity and human wisdom about how well people take care of common property. 4. Experience. Our encounter with the world both past and present. Christian tradition privileges the experience of those at the margins of societyâ€â€the poor and the oppressed. In Catholic social thought experience is enriched and expanded by a four step process of interpretation and reflection which I will call â€Å"the interpretive circle†. a. experience: insert yourself into a situation, see what is going on, and gather necessary information b. social analysis: â€Å"What are the structural or â€Å"root†causes of injustices?†â€Å"What are the patterns of action that reinforce these injustices?†c. theological reflection: â€Å"What light does faith, especially as expressed in Scripture and Catholic social teaching, shed upon our experience and social analysis?†â€Å"Where is God in this situation and how might we respond to God’s call to us?†d. practical planning: â€Å"What are the most faithful, creative, and effective ways of acting upon the first three steps?†* How does Catholic tradition use these four sources? 1. They serve as checks and balances to each other. Each should inform and complement the other in critical dialogue. 2. â€Å"Reason informed by faith.†Reason and faith penetrate each other and form a unified way of approaching problems. Scripture and Christian Tradition provide the overall story, worldview, and values that serve as the framework for moral reasoning.
Tuesday, October 22, 2019
menkaure essays
menkaure essays The sculpture group of King Menkaure and His Queen is positioned in one of the basic types of Egyptian sculpture the Standing/Striding pose. The figure of Menkaure is rigidly frontal, although his head is slightly turned to the right. His left foot is slightly advanced, however the upper body does not respond to this uneven distribution of weight - there is no tilt in the shoulders, nor a shift in the hips. All movement of the figure is suppressed: his muscular arms hang down his athletic body, they are not flexed at the elbow and do not break through the front contour of his thighs. The body remains wedded to the block of stone from which it was carved. The artist does not remove the dead stone between the arms and torso and most importantly his advanced leg is not carved in the round, which contributes to the solid and majestic appearance of the statue. The Queen assumes the same rigidly frontal posture, however her left leg is less advanced than his, which alludes that she is a subordinate figure to her king in this stance she is just echoing the pharaohs decisive actions. She embraces the pharaoh with her right arm placing her hand around his waist; her left arm is bent at the elbow and covering her stomach rests on the kings left arm. There is a space of about couple of centimeters between the statues that widens towards the base, and which makes Menkaure appear standing independently from his female counterpart. In this frontal, striding forward posture the pharaoh looks confident and in control. ...
Monday, October 21, 2019
Wwi - Total War Essays - Economic Warfare, Politics, Free Essays
Wwi - Total War Essays - Economic Warfare, Politics, Free Essays Wwi - Total War By 1939 France and Great Britain had declared war on Germany. Germany had invaded Poland and was working towards European domination while on the other side of the globe Japan had launched a massive attack on China and Korea and was steadily moving over the Pacific in an attempt to gain complete control over Greater East Asia. Italy was attempting to conquer the Mediterranean and was, thus far, triumphant. All was being broadcast globally on the radio. This was becoming a war unlike any in the 20th century, even the First World War couldnt compare to this gruesome fight against fascism, communism and world domination. For the first time ever there was a war on nearly every continent and ocean as well as every head and heart. This essay will examine how the media, economic and militaristic mobilization as well as the ideological opinions contribute to the view of the world being engrossed in what has now been called the last noble war. This war characterized itself by the complete mobilization of man and his
Sunday, October 20, 2019
Free Essays on Same-sex Marriages
Wrong Future Step. Same-sex marriage is a big issue in the United States and in some countries around the world. Nowadays, saying that someone is a â€Å"gay or lesbian†is like a familiar joke among people. It is known that in every country around the world there are â€Å"gay or lesbian†people. Hawaii is the only state that legalizes same-sex marriages, and many other states are considering legalizing it. This may occur in the US because of the high percentage of gays and lesbians. Same-sex marriages should not be legalized because it represents huge change and damage to society and to the essence and meaning of marriage. Legalizing same-sex marriages will change completely the whole society. It will cause sex confusion to young people who will not know if they are heterosexual or homosexual. The percentages of homosexual people will increase if same-sex marriages is allowed. If same-sex marriages is right, children from school will learn that is equally acceptable to marry a person with the same or different sex. This implies that it is completely right and recognized by the law that man can marry another man. Being taught that same-sex marriages is legal, students will freely choose for their partner a heterosexual or homosexual person. Many families will not accept that their child could be a homosexual person and that he can marry another with the same sex. For this reason, it is going to be a big war between the families who are for and against this point because most of the families in the United States are against this position. If a same-sex marriage is legal, young people will confuse which way -being homosexual or heterosexual- to take in life. Therefore, being a homosexual may be a role-model. Children adoption will be a big issue in same-sex couples who want to adopt children. The child adopted may be in the future the same as his/her parent. It may be better for a child to be raised by a heterosexual couple accordi... Free Essays on Same-sex Marriages Free Essays on Same-sex Marriages Wrong Future Step. Same-sex marriage is a big issue in the United States and in some countries around the world. Nowadays, saying that someone is a â€Å"gay or lesbian†is like a familiar joke among people. It is known that in every country around the world there are â€Å"gay or lesbian†people. Hawaii is the only state that legalizes same-sex marriages, and many other states are considering legalizing it. This may occur in the US because of the high percentage of gays and lesbians. Same-sex marriages should not be legalized because it represents huge change and damage to society and to the essence and meaning of marriage. Legalizing same-sex marriages will change completely the whole society. It will cause sex confusion to young people who will not know if they are heterosexual or homosexual. The percentages of homosexual people will increase if same-sex marriages is allowed. If same-sex marriages is right, children from school will learn that is equally acceptable to marry a person with the same or different sex. This implies that it is completely right and recognized by the law that man can marry another man. Being taught that same-sex marriages is legal, students will freely choose for their partner a heterosexual or homosexual person. Many families will not accept that their child could be a homosexual person and that he can marry another with the same sex. For this reason, it is going to be a big war between the families who are for and against this point because most of the families in the United States are against this position. If a same-sex marriage is legal, young people will confuse which way -being homosexual or heterosexual- to take in life. Therefore, being a homosexual may be a role-model. Children adoption will be a big issue in same-sex couples who want to adopt children. The child adopted may be in the future the same as his/her parent. It may be better for a child to be raised by a heterosexual couple accordi...
Saturday, October 19, 2019
Essay Questions Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1
Questions - Essay Example For example, in deductive explanation, if God is good, and murder is bad, then murders are not Godly. A probabilistic explanation example is that if it rains every 3 days a week in June, it is likely that June will have only 10 rainy days. 4. The aims of science are to generate knowledge, allow critique, analysis and explanation of claims of a body of knowledge. Science also aims to encourage logical predictions and understanding of phenomena. 5. In prediction, knowledge is sought based on previous trends. Unlike explanation, prediction does not delve into systematic analysis of precedent factors that affect the process of body of knowledge. That way, it is reverse process of explanation. 6. In Verstehen tradition claims that the understanding of social sciences must be analyzed through the prism of human behavior subjectively. On the other hand, predictive understanding argues that logical conclusions can be drawn objectively without approach social study subjectively. 7. In order for knowledge in general and scientific methodology to be intersubjective, there has to be transmissibility between the two approaches used in gaining knowledge. That is to mean that either can inform the other owing to an assumption that their methodology remains irreproachable, e.g. both being self-critical and highly analytical so that their conclusions are reliable. 8. What the authors term â€Å"scientific revolution†is a paradigm that transforms developments abruptly rather than gradually, ideas that related to normal science. Such paradigm transforms the existing body of knowledge. 9. Kuhn’s descriptive view of science is that a rival paradigm that introduces transformation is the dominant one whereas Popper’s prescriptive theory suggests that all paradigms should be acceptable as equal without assigning them superiority statuses. 2. Conceptual definitions are those whose major aim is to
Friday, October 18, 2019
Should the Ruler Always Keep His Word Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words
Should the Ruler Always Keep His Word - Essay Example It is possible to present power from an unusual perspective. This task was the most relevant to Machiavelli and he managed to open the eyes of his fans and follower and the coming generations on the real essence of power, and on power of the words. In the majority of cases Princes are focused on their own interests. They are selfish and prudent; they do not care about their people at all. Machiavelli has been focused on the relevance of the ruler and the meaning of his word. Further on this paper considers controversial and challenging moments of the statement that a ruler should not keep his word. A word of a ruler Machiavelli inspires readers. They love him for sincerity, unexpected expressions, feelings and emotions. Machiavelli claims: â€Å"One ought not, of course, to call it virtu to massacre one’s fellow citizens, to betray one’s friends, to break one’s word, to be without mercy and without religion. By such means one can acquire power but not glor y†(Prince online). Nowadays, the majority of politicians are focused on power. They consider it as an enormous blessing and there is no doubt that even the modern politicians cannot look further than their nose. Machiavelli and his feeling of patriotism, multiplied by a possibility to exist among other politicians and clerk were the main triggers for further developments of his political ideas. Actually, Machiavelli described people as masters and slaves. A former group of people is more powerful and it is appropriate for them to take care about themselves only. Slaves, or common people, in accordance with Machiavelli, are narrow-minded and follow the laws of the ruler, like an obedient herd of ships (Bagley, 1989). Therefore, it is possible to suggest, that Machiavelli wants to describe a dual nature of a human being. There are two origins in the nature of every man: on the one hand, we choose: "What [classical writers] intended to convey, with this story of rulers’ b eing educated by someone who was half beast and half man, was that it is necessary for a ruler to know when to act like an animal and when like a man; and if he relies on just one or the other mode of behavior he cannot hope to survive" (Prince online). This explanation can be correlated with a developed system of people, i.e. Masters and Slaves (Alter, 1999). Masters know how to behave with their slaves; they impose perverted laws on them and they have no doubts that their Slaves would follow all their needs and wants. When it goes about Masters’ words or the ways of behavior, they have sharp minds and can easily choose appropriate strategies and the ways of behavior. A Master uses beasty features, turns into a lion and can easily conquer his enemies. A Master turns into a fox, when he wants to conduct his cunning laws and create traps for his Slaves. On the one hand, it is appropriate for a ruler to choose different strategies of behavior. Otherwise it is impossible to reig n. On the other hand, what can be said about a ruler if he does not keep his word? He can lose respect and trust of his people. Only a feeling of fear can prevent people from real protesting. In this case, the Prince can behave in whatever he wants, because he will get no resistance from people around him. There are many things, which are permitted for the king, but these deeds are forbidden for a slave. Machiavelli claims that there are many sins and every man
Unified Tobacco - Business and Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words
Unified Tobacco - Business and Ethics - Essay Example His decisions are based on his definition of right and good. And in Socialism, the ethics of virtue is expressed through the concept that the fulfilment of a human is in helping others (â€Å"Ethics†2006). As such, both Ethicists’ most probable way to handle this conflict is to find ways to communicate to the protest groups the positive side of the tobacco business, despite its evident disadvantages to the community, but under different premises. Unified Tobacco sells a product that is known to be harmful to everyone’s health. The hazard of smoking is plain and simple: it causes ailments that potentially lead to death, not just to the users themselves but also to those who are considered passive smokers. The issues of the protesters are actually valid. However, to address these concerns, the government has already established various resolutions to regulate the use of cigarettes, particularly in public places. Furthermore, the government and other concerned groups are involved in various massive campaigns to promote information regarding the disadvantages of using this product. Man always has a choice of whether or not to patronize cigarette smoking. Even the manufacturers themselves warn the public of the dangers of smoking through their tagline â€Å"cigarette smoking is dangerous to one’s health†. However, on the other side, the tobacco industry helps bring jobs to the community. It employs hundreds of people and gives them a livelihood. Further, it greatly contributes to the community’s economy. The industry supports the development of the community through its tax returns and through company-initiated activities that aim at promoting social welfare and cater to community needs. In the end, the tobacco industry largely contributes to the community’s economy despite the nature of its product. As it makes one a good person to be of assistance to the community in general and to participate in the pursuit of common good, a Virtue Ethicist’s action plan is to facilitate the increase of the company’s drive to promote awareness on the use of cigarette smoking.
Implementing Organizational Change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1
Implementing Organizational Change - Essay Example The third stage is process reengineering. In this stage it is assumed that incremental changes have a minimal impact, important improvements may be attained by disregarding how the process is undertaken during the present and starting on a clean slate. The final stage is the corporate transformation that is more drastic and involves changes that affect the organization in general. It may include acquisitions and mergers. One of my peers posted an article on Tichy’s three types of change. The article stated that any change within an organization was caused by changes in the technical, political and cultural aspects. This article was properly researched however failed to take into account the stages of change within an entity (Lune, 2006). The other article was on Balogun and Hope-Hailey’s Change Model. This model states that there are four types of change within organizations that take four strategies into account. Two classifications are based on the end result and include realignment and transformation. The other two classes are based on nature of change and include big bang and incremental
Thursday, October 17, 2019
CRITICALL REVIEW AND JUDGE THE EVOLVING ROLE OF THE ANAESTHETIC NURSE Essay
CRITICALL REVIEW AND JUDGE THE EVOLVING ROLE OF THE ANAESTHETIC NURSE - Essay Example During this time, there were high mortality rates arising from use of anaesthesia during surgical operations. Anaesthetic nursing training evolved in three distinct phases in both Europe and the United States. In the first phase, nurses were initially trained through apprenticeship by surgeons on how to administer anaesthesia. The student nurse was then taken through anaesthesia administration training as part of the second phase in the development of anaesthesia. Specialized training in higher institution of learning began to offer postgraduate training in nursing anaesthesia from the beginning of the 20th century. This was the third phase of anaesthetic training across the globe (Handerfelt, 2006). The first UK anaesthesia was administered in 1945 according to Kane and Smith (2003). Educational qualification for professional anaesthetics was first developed through the introduction of a diploma in anaesthesia for professional nurses. As a result, the faculty of anaesthetics at the Royal College of Surgeons of England was created; a charter granted to the college in 1992 saw it develop to the Royal College of Anaesthetists. The royal college of anaesthetist has a responsibility of ensuring that the quality of patients care is improved in line with the standards of the association. Alice Magaw was called the ‘mother of anaesthesia’ for her pioneer role in the anaesthesia administration. Catholic nuns in the initial development of this nursing profession also played a major role. As many hospitals within this period were developed by religious organisations, the religious leaders had a major role too in the development of this speciality (Bankert, 1989). Initial administration of anaesthesia also met a lot of resistance and theatre room revolt among patients. This was due to the uncontrolled administration of the drug during the early stages of anaesthesia development. Anaesthetic use was then associated with the high number of theatre deaths in the hospitals. This caused public panic and negative awareness on the effects and importance of anaesthesia. A frontier was therefore created for the nurse anaesthetics to prove that their role was meant to save and not to end life (Hadenfelt, 2006). The anaesthetic nursing profession grew and developed during the World War 1 as more nurses were captured and force to serve at the forefront. Today, this is one of the most decorated professions in the military of the United States and anaesthetic nurses are always honoured for their services to the soldiers. After the demand for anaesthetic nurses during the World War 1, most institutions developed nursing anaesthetic programs to help bridge the existing deficit. Nursing anaesthetics are assigned major roles in major hospitals where they educated other nurses and medical interns on anaesthesia (Bankert, 1989). With this profession growing and demand increasing, the American association of nurse anaesthetists (AANA) was formed in 1931 to represent the anaesthetic nurses in the country. This association had a mandate to ensure the promotion of operation standards and provide consultation services to government agencies whenever necessary. The association also ensures that more professional are trained in this profession so as to keep up with the rising demand for anaesthetic services. Different agents have also been used as anaesthesia from the first time this medical application was discovered. Opium, an
Woolf's biography, and the movie The Hours Essay
Woolf's biography, and the movie The Hours - Essay Example the latter, Woolf’s separate creation of the short story ‘The New Dress’ likewise presents Mabel, who through looking-glass suddenly sees the excruciating reality of her extreme sense of dissatisfaction or the seemingly spellbound misery in being severely insecure toward the society’s judgment of the way she dresses. ‘The Hours’ explores this theme of coping with a psychological challenge in an attempt to retain the sanity as Julian Moore portrays the pregnant Laura Brown who appears to feel cursed with her state of unhappiness upon married life after the World War II despite living the American dream. She finds huge relevance in reading the story of Mrs. Dalloway in her prevailing situation and consequently abandons her family -- a form of escape she deems as urgent necessity. At this point, while V. Woolf via Nicole Kidman’s portrayal is trapped in the 1920’s setting of her English home which depicts much of her manner of trying to stay alive for husband Leonard, L. Brown in the same way endeavors to survive with the established norm. When she no longer could bear it however, her decision to turn her back to such dreary existence is a means to leave an ensuing madness that has already initiated the tendency to disrupt in her as it does to Woolf who, at the end of the film, commits suicide by drowning herself at the River Ouse in 1941 to perhaps let the flowing waters dissolve all her personal intolerable maddening. Equivalently, Clarissa Vaughan through Meryl Streep in the movie can be readily likened to Mrs. Dalloway herself and friend poet-writer Richard would address Vaughan as such for the striking semblances between their lives. This is in reference to the party Mrs. Dalloway is to host come evening which parallels the social attitude of Vaughan with her serious preparations in considering to put up a gathering that aims to celebrate her gay friend’s reception of a career achievement award. If the reading film viewer happens to acquire a
Wednesday, October 16, 2019
Implementing Organizational Change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1
Implementing Organizational Change - Essay Example The third stage is process reengineering. In this stage it is assumed that incremental changes have a minimal impact, important improvements may be attained by disregarding how the process is undertaken during the present and starting on a clean slate. The final stage is the corporate transformation that is more drastic and involves changes that affect the organization in general. It may include acquisitions and mergers. One of my peers posted an article on Tichy’s three types of change. The article stated that any change within an organization was caused by changes in the technical, political and cultural aspects. This article was properly researched however failed to take into account the stages of change within an entity (Lune, 2006). The other article was on Balogun and Hope-Hailey’s Change Model. This model states that there are four types of change within organizations that take four strategies into account. Two classifications are based on the end result and include realignment and transformation. The other two classes are based on nature of change and include big bang and incremental
Tuesday, October 15, 2019
Woolf's biography, and the movie The Hours Essay
Woolf's biography, and the movie The Hours - Essay Example the latter, Woolf’s separate creation of the short story ‘The New Dress’ likewise presents Mabel, who through looking-glass suddenly sees the excruciating reality of her extreme sense of dissatisfaction or the seemingly spellbound misery in being severely insecure toward the society’s judgment of the way she dresses. ‘The Hours’ explores this theme of coping with a psychological challenge in an attempt to retain the sanity as Julian Moore portrays the pregnant Laura Brown who appears to feel cursed with her state of unhappiness upon married life after the World War II despite living the American dream. She finds huge relevance in reading the story of Mrs. Dalloway in her prevailing situation and consequently abandons her family -- a form of escape she deems as urgent necessity. At this point, while V. Woolf via Nicole Kidman’s portrayal is trapped in the 1920’s setting of her English home which depicts much of her manner of trying to stay alive for husband Leonard, L. Brown in the same way endeavors to survive with the established norm. When she no longer could bear it however, her decision to turn her back to such dreary existence is a means to leave an ensuing madness that has already initiated the tendency to disrupt in her as it does to Woolf who, at the end of the film, commits suicide by drowning herself at the River Ouse in 1941 to perhaps let the flowing waters dissolve all her personal intolerable maddening. Equivalently, Clarissa Vaughan through Meryl Streep in the movie can be readily likened to Mrs. Dalloway herself and friend poet-writer Richard would address Vaughan as such for the striking semblances between their lives. This is in reference to the party Mrs. Dalloway is to host come evening which parallels the social attitude of Vaughan with her serious preparations in considering to put up a gathering that aims to celebrate her gay friend’s reception of a career achievement award. If the reading film viewer happens to acquire a
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